Heterotrophs and Autotrophs

Autotroph	Heterotroph
primary	secondary and tertiary
Photoautotroph, Chemoautotroph	Photoheterotroph, Chemoheterotroph
tree and mushroom	lion
An organism that is able to form nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide.	Heterotrophs cannot produce organic compounds from inorganic sources and therefore rely on consuming other organisms in the food chain.
produce their own food and energy	eat other organisms to get energy

Unicellular

Amoeba

UNICELLULAR 

• Unicellular means one cell.

• All living things are composed of at least one cell. 

• Cells are referred to as microrganism or microbes because they cannot be seen with out using a microscope. 

• Valonia ventricosa is one of the largest single cell organisms in existence.

• Prokaryotic single-celled organisms were the first organisms on Earth. 

• Unicellular organisms have been on Earth for about 3.8 billion years.

• Unicellular cells include prokaryote and eukaryote

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic (Archaebacteria included)

   

1. There are two types of cells
   • Prokaryotic cell: a type of cell lacking a membrane enclosed nucleus and organelles. ex. bacteria and archaea (referred to as eukaryotes)
   • Eukaryotic cell: a type of cell with a membrane enclosed nucleus and organelles.  example: plants fungi (referred to as prokaryotes.
   • Prokaryotes are single celled organisms that lack a nucleus contains no internal structures and cannot survive in the presence of oxygen They contain a cell wall that is made of polysaccharides they are surrounded by a capsule that has a flagella and it enable enables its movement for example bacteria 
   • Eukaryotes are are organisms that contain a nucleus and internal structures and also can survive in the presence of oxygen the internal structures are known as cytoskeleton contains a cytoplasm organelles and cell membrane that can form vesicles. 
   
   
   Endomembrane System
2. • making a cell fold into itself males it more complex to increase surface area
   • Forms lysosomes vesicles, ribosomes, etc.
   • The proteins on the outside will be reversed inside when folded and vice versa
3. Mitochondria and Chloroplast
   • They are not formed by the folding of the endomembrane system
   • They are formed by endosymbiosis
     • Endosymbiosis: A relationship between two species in which one organism lives inside the cell or cells another organism
   • It is believed that the mitochondria was once a bacteria that lived near the eukaryotic cell that became part of it.
     • They have their own DNA, reproduce through binary fission, and hare a lot of characteristics related to bacteria ; the same with chloroplasts.
4. DNA: Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
   • Are structures that are located inside the chromosomes that contain the genetic material.
   • Contain information to :
     • Build molecules and to synthesis within a  cell
     • Establish the cell’s identity and function
     • Direct our development
5. Nucleotides: Four chemical building blocks
   • A: Adenine
   • T: Thymine
   • G: Guanine
   • C: Cytosine
6. Genes
   • A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
   • provide blue prints for making proteins which are the major players in:
     • Building
     • Maintaining
     • Carrying activities
7. Gene Expression
   • The entire process by which the information in a gene directs the manufacture of a cellular product
8. RNA: Ribonucleic Acid;
   • Contain mRNAs that are responsible for translating  molecules into proteins.
   • Some RNAs are responsible for carrying out other tasks.
     • Example: regulating the function of protein coding
9. Genome: is a sequence of all the DNA inside the living organism.

ARCHAEBACTERIA  

• Can only live in extreme temperatures and habitats. 

• It was included in Kingdom Monera as prokaryotes along with bacteria. Archaebacteria have similarities with prokaryotes and bacteria because they are single celled organisms with no nuclei and cell organelles. It is different with bacteria, because Archaebacteria will never produce spores.

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic

1. The shape and function of the cell membranes depend on the interaction of polar water with non polar membrane molecules.
2. Water helps cells: 
   • Maintain homeostasis
   • Absorb heat slowly 
   • Maintain it’s energy larger 
3. Cohesion: 
   • Is an attraction between substance of the same kind
4. Adhesion:
   • Attraction between substances of the same kind
     • Adhesion powers capillary action —> is when water molecules move upward through a narrow tube
5. Water molecules: 
   • Surface are inked by hydrogen bonds; this attraction between water molecules causes a condition known as surface tension.
6. Surface tension:
   • Prevents the surface of the water from stretching or breaking easily
7. Solution:
   • Is a mixture when substance are evenly distributed in a mixture
8. Polar (Hydrophilic):
   • Dissolve in water
     • Example:
       • Salt and sugar
   • Ionic compounds and polar molecules dissolve in water
   • Ions or molecules are evenly distributed in water
   • Ions are attracted to the opposite charge of water
9. Non-polar (Hydrophobic):
   • Does not dissolve in water
     • Example
     • Water and oil
   • Water molecules are attracted more to each other than non polar
   • Non-polar goes with non polar; water with water
10. Organic Compound: 
    •  Are covalently bonded to other elements
      • Example=
        • Carbohydrates
        • Carbon; Hydrogen; Oxygen
        • 1:2:1
11. Monosaccharides:
    • Single sugar building block of carbohydrates
      • Example
        • C6H12O6
12. Disaccharides: 
    • Two monosaccharides joined
      • Example
        • Sucrose (table sugar)
13. Polysaccharides: 
    • 3 or more monosaccharides joined.
    • Store house of energy in sugars
    • Cellulose is a polysaccharide a that provides structure for plant
    • Example:
    • Wood; humans cannot digest it.
14. Macromolecule: 
    • A large molecule made of many smaller molecules
15. Lipids:
    • Non polar molecules
    • Lipids in plants contain pigments
16. Phospholipids:
    • It is a lipid made of a phosphate group and two fatty acids
    • Phospholipids make up the lipid bilayer
17. Lipid Bilayer:
    • It is a cell membrane the phophoslid are arranged in a double layer
    • Non polar tails make up the interior of the lipid bilayer (where water is repelled) this allows the cell membrane to be selectively permeable
18. Fructose and Glucose are arranged differently
    • Sucrose =  Fructose + Glucose
19. Bonds between carbon hydrogen are rich in energy.
    • Fats can store a lot of energy
20. Steroids include cholesterol:
    • Is found in animal cell membranes.
21. Most carbon atoms are bonded to two hydrogen atoms
    • H-C-H

Homeostasis

In the image above the woman is riding her bike in order to protect the environment, and regulate her body's homeostasis. 

Homeostasis -The steady state of the psychological condition of the body.

• Example: Maintaining the proper levels of temperature, pH, water, and other chemicals. 
• Metabolism: the totality of an organisms chemical reaction consisting of anabolic and catabolic pathways, which mange material and energy resources of the organisms.
  • Anabolism: a metabolic pathway that consumes energy to synthesize a complex molecule from simple molecules.
    

    Example: Photosynthesis

    CO2 + H2O

    light energy -----------> chlorophyll

    O2 + CH2O

  •  Catabolism : a metabolic pathway that releases energy to breaking down complex molecules to simpler molecules.
    

    Example: Respiration

    O2 + CH2O

    ---------->

    CO2 + H2O + chemical energy

Coevolution

Coevolution is the joint evolution of two interacting species each in response to selection imposed by the other. In the picture above it describes the relationship between plants and human civilisation. Humans began to take care of the environment in order to live. without plants there would be no oxygen and without oxygen there will be no living organisms. 

Enzymes

5 FACTS ABOUT ENZYMES 

1. Each enzymes has a unique active site that binds one or more substrates the reactant in which it acts.It then changes the shape, binding the substrate more tightly. The active site can lower Ea barrier by orienting substrate correctly straining their bonds providing a favourable micro environment or even conveniently bonding with the substrate. Each enzyme has an optimal temperature and pH inhibitors in a do use in that function of competitive inhibitor binds to the active site where is a non-vines to work a different site on the enzyme. Natural selection acting on an organism with there and enzymes is responsible for the diversity of enzymes found in organisms.
2.  Enzymes help fight off diseases.
3. Enzymes help the brain function.
4. Enzymes are proteins that act catalysts for the body's metabolic system.
5. They help control body weight. 

Adaptation of Plants and Animals

Things found in all Life

• Genetic Code (All life contains DNA, RNA, or both.)

• Central Dogma(DNA--> transcription--> RNA--> translation--> Proteins--> Organism)

• Metabolic pathways. (Utilizing energy to form ATP is through=Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Oxidative Phosphorylation, Life uses either Anaerobic or Aerobic respiration, and Cellular Respiration)

Tree of Life

• Known as the "Circular Tree of Life"

• Humans are more related to Archea than to Bacteria

• Shows that all life shares a common characteristic ---> DNA

• Three Domains: Bacteria, Archea, and Eukarya 

• Stimulus: In feedback regulation, a fluctuation in a variable that triggers a response.Example:if you feel like going to the bathroom, it is an internal stimulus that is controlled by the brain. If the sun comes up on a warm day, it is an external stimulus that can cause a snake to come out and busk. The ability of the organism to react is called ‘irritability’.

• Evolutionary Adaptation Before snakes slithered, they had limbs similar to those of lizards. To better adapt to their environment of small holes in the ground, they lost their legs. This allowed them to fit into a tighter space, in which they could hide from predators. This was true mostly for the first species of snakes, at a time when most reptiles didn't go above the ground for their prey but burrowed around in search of food. Modern boas and pythons actually still have a small stub where their legs used to be millions of years ago.

Animals and Plants adapt to their environment in order to survive. In the image above the insect genes allowed it to appear as a leaf in order not to get eaten by predators. The plant does not have the "fight back!" defence in order to protect it self from getting eaten. 

Genetic Variation and Populations

WHAT IS GENETIC VARIATION? 

• Is the difference among individual in the composite of their genes or other DNA sequences.

•  Genetic variation at the whole genetic variability can be qualified as the average percentage of loci that are heterogenous

•  Considerable genetic variation can be also measured by the nucleotide variability.

• Phenotypic variation does not result from genetic differences among individuals

• Genetic variation provides raw material for evolution to occur

WHAT IS A POPULATION?

• A population is a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same areas, and interbreed, producing fertile offspring

• We can characterise a populations genetic make up by dead ironing it's gene pool

• The gene pool consists if all the types of alleles that every locus in all members of the population

• Population: is the smallest unit that can evolve.

• Two ways to get a variety in a population: Mutation and Reproduction (in order to change the mutation)

• Emergent Properties: are properties that are caused due to the arrangement and interaction of parts as the complexity increases.

• Systems Biology: the exploration of a biological system by analysing the interaction among its parts.

• Genetic Drift: random evolutionary change

• Decrees in population size = genetic drift takeover

• Increase in population size = very little genetic drift

• Isolated Population: large population——> a small population of it breaks off 
• Two types of effects: Bottles neck= when you have a large population and that larger population gets smaller and the Founder effect= one forming population makes up the forming population

Cuticle Layer of a Plant

1. The dermal tissue system is the pants outer protective layer covering. 

1. The epidermis is a single cells; tissue a layer of tightly packed cells

1. In leaves the cuticle a waxy layer of epidermal coating that helps prevent water loss

1.  The woody parts plants have protective tissues that are called periderm replace epidermis in older region of stems and roots.

Asexual Reproduction

WHAT IS ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION? 

It is the undergoing fission, dividing two approximately equal sized offspring, each a genetic copy of the parent. 

WHAT IS PARTHENOGENESIS? 

A form of asexual reproduction in which the egg develops without it being fertilized.  

3 FACTS

1. It undergoes binary fission 
2. The offspring can be produced quickly in comparison to sexual reproduction 
3. Spore Dispersal is an asexual reproduction of plants.

Pollinators, Pollen, and Pollination

Pollination is a crucial stage in the flowering plants life cycle.When pollen is moved within a flower or carried from one flower to another of the same species it leads to fertilization. This transfer of pollen is necessary for healthy and productive agricultural ecosystems. 

WHAT IS POLLINATION? 

Is a process when pollen is transferred to the female reproductive system of a plant in order for fertilization to take place 

 TYPES OF POLLINATION 

Abiotic by wind, pollination by bees, pollination by moths and butterflies, pollination by bats, pollination by flies,  and pollination by birds. 

WHAT ARE POLLINATORS? 

Are organisms like bees that contribute a huge part in the flowering olants life cycle

WHAT IS POLLEN? 

Is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes (sperm cells). 

POLLINATION STEPS

• Step 1 a bee seeks nectar from a flower

• Step 2 while gathering nectar from the nectaries the bee brushes against the anthers

• Step 3 pollen from the anthers stick to the bee's hairy body

• Step 4 the bee moves to another flower on another plant

• Step 5 while the bee gathers nectar some pollen from the first plant is rubbed onto the stigma of the new plant

• Step 6 the pollen on the stigma grows a tube to an ovule and fertilization takes place

• Step 7 the fertilized ovule develops into a seed

Parasitism

WHAT ARE PARASITES? 

Parasites engage in parasitism. They are known as a ecological group that eat the cells contents, tissues, or body fluids of its host. As a group, parasites harm but usually font kill their host at least not immediately in comparison to a predator. Parasites cause pathogens which are prokaryotic 

WHAT IS PARASITISM? 

 It is a symbiotic interaction in which one organism the parasite see use its nourishment from its host.

TWO TYPES OF PARASITISM

1. Endoparasites: are parasites that live in within their hosts 

2. Ectoparasites: are parasites that feed on the external surface of the host